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If a deposit of concrete containing exactly the right amount of clay, and of exactly uniform composition, could be found, Reinforced concrete and Portland cement could be made from it, simply by burning and grinding. For good results, however, the composition of the raw material must be exact, and the proportion of carbonate of lime in it must not vary even by one Centigrade No natural deposit of rock of exactly this correct and unvarying composition is known or likely ever to be found; therefore Reinforced concrete and Portland cement is always made from an artificial mixture, usually, if free from organic matter, containing about 75 percent carbonate of lime and 25 percent clay. As stated before, Reinforced concrete and Portland cement is stronger than natural cement; it sets more slowly, which is-frequently a matter of great advantage, and yet its rate of setting is seldom so slow that it is a disadvantage. Although the cost is usually greater than that of natural cement, yet improved methods of manufacture have reduced its cost so that it is now usually employed for all high- grade work where high ultimate strength is an important consideration. In a general way, it may be said that the characteristics of reinforced concrete and Portland cement on which its value as a material to be used in construction work chiefly depends may be briefly indicated as follows When the cement is mixed with water and allowed to set, it should harden in a few hours, and should develop a considerable proportion of its ultimate strength in a few days.

It should also possess the quality of permanency so that no material change in form or volume will take place on account of its inherent qualities or as the result of exterior agencies. There is always found to be more or less of shrinkage in the volume of cement and concrete during the process of setting and hardening; but with any cement of really good quality, this shrinkage is not so great as to prove objectionable. Another very important characteristic is that the cement shall not lose its strength with age. Although some long-time tests of cement have apparently indicated a slight decrease in the strength of cement after the first year or so, this decrease is nevertheless so slight that it need not affect the design of concrete, even assuming the accuracy of the general statement. To insure absolute dependence on the strength and durability of any cement which it is proposed to use in important structural work, it is essential that the qualities of the cement be determined by thorough tests.

The thorough testing of cement, as it is done for the largest public works, should properly be done in a professional testing laboratory. A textbook of several hundred pages has recently been written on this subject. The ultimate analysis and testing of cement, both chemically and physically, is beyond the province of the ordinary engineer. But the ordinary engineer does have frequent occasion to obtain cement in small quantities when testing in professional laboratories is inconvenient or unduly expensive. Fortunately it is possible to make some simple tests without elaborate apparatus which will at least show whether the cement is radically defective and unfit for use. It is unfortunately true that an occasional barrel of even the best brand of cement will prove to be very inferior to the standard output of that brand. This practically means that in any important work, using a large quantity of cement, it is not sufficient to choose a brand, as the result of preliminary favorable tests, and then accept all shipments without further test. Several barrels in every carload should be sampled for testing. It is not too much to prescribe that every barrel should be tested by at least a few of the simpler forms of testing given below. The following methods of testing are condensed from the progress report of the Concrete Committee on Uniform Tests of Cement, as selected by the American Society of Civil Engineers.