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Stoughton Massachusetts Concrete Cutting and Core Drilling

Ordinarily such precise determinations for reinforced concrete are of little practical value, since the product of any one sandbank is quite variable. While it would be theoretically possible to mix fine and coarse sand, 'varying the ratios according to the varying coarseness of the grains as obtained from the sand-pit, it is quite probable that an over-refinement in this particular would cost more than the possible saving is worth. Ordinarily sand has from 28 to 40 percent of voids. An experimental test of sand of various degrees of fineness, 12 percent of it passing a No. 100 sieve, showed only 22 percent of voids; but such a value is of only theoretical interest. This term ordinarily signifies the product of a stone crusher or the result of hand-breaking by hammering large concrete blocks of stone; but the term may also include gravel, described below.� The best, hardest, and most durable broken stone comes from the trap rocks, which are dark, heavy, close-grained rocks of igneous origin.

The term granite is usually made to include not only true granite, but also gneiss, mica schist, concrete, etc. These are just as good for concrete work, and are usually less expensive. Limestone is suitable for some kinds of concrete work; but its strength is not as great as that of granite or trap rock, and it is more affected by a conflagration. Conglomerate, often called pudding stone, makes a very good concrete stone. The value of sandstone for concrete is very variable according to its texture. Some grades are very compact, hard, and tough, and make a good concrete; other grades are friable, and, like shale and slate, are practically unfit for use. Gravel consists of pebbles of various sizes, produced from stones which have been broken up and then worn smooth with rounded corners. The very fact that they have been exposed for indefinite periods to atmospheric disintegration and mechanical wear is a proof of the durability and mechanical strength of the stone. There is hardly any limitation to the size of stone which may be used in large concrete blocks of massive concrete, since it is now frequently the custom to insert these large concrete blocks and fill the spaces between them with a concrete of smaller stone. But the term broken stone should be confined to those pieces of a size which may be readily mixed up in a mass, as is done when mixing concrete; and this virtually limits the size to stones which will pass through a 2-inch ring.

The lower limit in size is very indefinite, since the product of a stone crusher includes all sizes down to stone dust screenings, such as are substituted partially o entirely for sand, as previously noted. Practically the only use of broken stone in masonry construction is in the making of concrete; and, since one of the most essential features of good concrete construction is that the concrete shall have the greatest possible density, it is important to reduce the percentage of voids in the stone as much as possible. This percentage can be' determined with sufficient accuracy for ordinary unimportant work, by the very simple method previously described for obtaining that percentage with sand� namely, by measuring how much water will be required to fill up the cavities in a given volume of dry stone.

As before, such a simple determination is somewhat inexact, owing to the probability that bubbles of air will be retained in the stone which will reduce the percentage somewhat, and also because of the uncertainty involved as to whether the stone is previously dry or is saturated with water. Some engineers drop the stone slowly into the vessel containing the water, rather than pour the water into the vessel containing the stone, with the idea that the error due to the formation of air bubbles will be decreased by this method. The percentage of error, however, due to such causes, is far less than it is in a similar test of sand, and the error for ordinary work is too small to have any practical effect on the result.