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A vast amount of research is being carried on and marked advance has been made towards mastering the art and science of making good concrete, progress so definite that it is now possible to study the available aggregates and proportion, or design, the mix with considerable accuracy to attain a certain specified strength. A thorough study of concrete is beyond the scope of this text. A brief discussion is given to enable the student to understand the main principles of modern concrete making, with references to guide him to the sources of information should he wish to gain enough understanding of the subject to enable him to apply the principles successfully. Until within a few years the only accepted principles governing the proportioning of concrete was three: That for any given combination of aggregates, strength, impermeability and durability increase with increased proportions of cement, the consistency remaining the same. That for any given aggregates, the proportion of cement being fixed and consistency being constant, maximum strength, impermeability and durability is obtained with that combination of ingredients giving the densest mixture. That the quality of the concrete is best when mixed with enough water to give a plastic or mushy consistency, an excess of water resulting in a weak concrete.

Accordingly four general methods, with variations, were developed, each aiming to determine the proportions of the several ingredients that result in a mass containing the maximum amount of solid matter per unit volume: Many investigators today doubt the theory of maximum density, notably Professor Duff A. Abrams 1 who in 1918 advanced the Water-Ratio theory, urging that the strength of concrete of workable consistency is fixed by the amount of water used per bag of cement. The recommendations of the Joint Committee in 1916 were based upon the theory of maximum density; those of 1924 are that "the engineer shall determine by tests of the available aggregates in advance of use the proportions necessary to produce concrete of the desired strength. Where this is impracticable the engineer is given as a guide a set of tables of required proportions of variously sized aggregates for various required strengths. These tables were prepared by Professor Abrams in accordance with his theory. Presumably the methods of test intended are also those of Professor Abrams. Several million cubic yards of concrete have been proportioned in accordance with the water-ratio theory during the past three years to the full satisfaction of the engineers, contractors and owners involved. As has been indicated the water-ratio theory is rapidly winning wide adherence in this country. Recent simplifications in its application make it certain that there will be a great increase in its use. The days of carelessly made concrete are ending. �In charge of the Structural Materials Research Laboratory, Lewis Institute, Chicago Professor Abrams' researches in concrete have been carried out through the cooperation of Lewis Institute and the Portland Cement Association concrete makers are learning how to make good concrete with economy. Another theory worthy of note is that of Mr. L. N. Edwards who proportions the cement to the surface area of the aggregates. While this theory has not had wide application it seems more than probable that it will play its part in the final solution of the problem of proportioning. It cannot be urged too strongly that a brief outline of methods such as that given in this text gives a deceptive air of simplicity to a complicated problem. Extended reading such as is suggested by the references at the end of this chapter, and actual work with concrete in the laboratory is essential to any real comprehension of the subject.