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The sharpness of sand can be determined approximately by rubbing a few grains in the hand or by crushing it near the ear and noting if a grating sound is produced; but an examination through a small lens is better. Experiments have shown that round grains of sand have less voids than angular ones, and that water-worn sands have from 3 percent to 5 percent less voids than corresponding sharp grains. In many parts of the country where it is impossible, except at a great expense, to obtain the sharp sand, the round grain is used with very good results.

Laboratory tests in under conditions as nearly as possible identical, show that the rounded-grain sand gives as good results as the sharp sand. In consequence of such tests, the requirement that sand shall be sharp is now considered useless by many engineers, especially when it leads to additional cost. In all specifications for concrete work, is found the clause: "The sand shall be clean." This requirement is sometimes questioned, as experimenters have found that a small percentage of clay or loam often gives better results than when clean sand is used. "Lean" concrete mortar may be improved by a small percentage of clay or loam or by using dirty sand, for the fine material increases the density. In rich concrete mortars, this fine material is not needed, as the cement furnishes all the fine material necessary, and if clay or loam or dirty sand were used, it might prove detrimental. Whether it is really a benefit or not, depends chiefly upon the richness of the concrete and the coarseness of the sand.

Some idea of the cleanliness of sand may be obtained by placing it in the palm of one hand and rubbing it with the fingers of the other. If the sand is dirty, it will badly discolor the palm of the hand. When it is found necessary to use dirty sand, the strength of the concrete should be tested. Sand containing loam or earthy material is cleansed by washing with water, either in a machine specially designed for the' purpose, or by agitating the sand with water in boxes provided with holes to permit the dirty water to flow away. Very fine sand may be used alone, but it makes a weaker concrete than either coarse sand or coarse and fine sand mixed. A concrete mortar consisting of very fine sand and cement will not be so dense as one of coarse sand and the same cement, although, when measured or weighed dry, both contain the same proportion of voids and solid matter. In a unit measure of fine sand, there are more grains than in a unit measure of coarse sand, and therefore more points of contact. More water is required in gauging a mixture of fine sand and cement than in a mixture of coarse sand and the same cement. The water forms a film and separates the grains, thus producing a larger volume having less density. The screenings of broken stone are sometimes used instead of sand. Tests frequently show a stronger concrete when screenings are used than when sand is used. This is perhaps due to the variable sizes of the screenings, which would have a less percentage of voids.

As stated before, a concrete mortar is strongest when composed of fine and coarse grains mixed in such proportion that the percentage of voids shall be the least. The simplest method of comparing two sands is to weigh a certain gross volume of each, the sand having been thoroughly shaken down. Assuming that the 'stone itself of each kind of sand has the same density, then the heavier volume of sand will have the least percentage of voids. The actual percentage of voids in packed sand may be approximately determined by measuring the volume of water which can be added to a given volume of packed sand. If the water is poured into the sand, it is quite certain that air will remain in the voids in the sand, which will not be dislodged by the water, and the apparent volume of voids will be less than the actual. The precise determination involves the measurement of the specific gravity of the stone of which the sand is composed, and the percentage of moisture .in the sand, all of which is done with elaborate precautions.